HOME WEB NEWS IMAGES CLASSIFIEDS YELLOW PAGESPOLLS - SURVEYS WIKI COUNTRIES PHOTOS US UK INDIA
Cities Stocks Weather Movies Coupons Travel Blogs Health Horoscope Maps ASIA EUROPE Classifieds Yellow Pages
|
| Language classification |
|---|
| Indo-European Proto-Celtic |
The Proto-Celtic language, also called Common Celtic, is the putative ancestor of all the known Celtic languages. Its lexis can be confidently reconstructed on the basis of the comparative method of historical linguistics. Proto-Celtic is a direct daughter-language of Proto-Indo-European and is widely regarded as the first of the Indo-European languages to spread in northwestern and Atlantic Europe. The area in which the language seems to have first become distinguishably Proto-Celtic, as opposed to an earlier Centum dialect, may correspond to the Hallstatt culture, on the western fringes of the Urnfield. However, some scholars consider it arose on the Atlantic coast of Europefor example Barry Cunliffe.
The reconstruction of Proto-Celtic is currently being undertaken. While Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for phonology, and some for morphology, recorded material is largely still too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax. Although some complete sentences are recorded in Gaulish and Celtiberian, the oldest substantial Celtic literature is found in Old Irish, the earliest recorded of the Insular Celtic languages.
Contents |
The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Celtic consonants may be summarised as follows. (An asterisk [*] prior to a letter or word designates that the phoneme or lexeme is not attested but is a hypothetical, reconstructed form.)
| PIE | Proto-Celtic | Example |
|---|---|---|
| *p | *ɸ | *ph₂tēr > *ɸatīr \'father\' |
| *t | *t | *treyes > *trīs \'three\' |
| *k, ḱ | *k | *kan- > *kan- \'sing\' *ḱm̥tom > *kantom \'hundred\' |
| *kʷ | *kʷ | *kʷetwr̥ > *kʷetwar \'four\' |
| *b | *b | *dʰub-no- > *dubno- \'deep\' |
| *d | *d | *derk- > *derk- \'see\' |
| *g, ǵ | *g | *gli- > *gli- \'to glue\' *ǵenu- > *genu- \'jaw\' |
| *gʷ | *b | *gʷen- > *ben- \'woman\' |
| *bʰ | *b | *bʰer- > *ber- \'carry\' |
| *dʰ | *d | *dʰeh₁- > *dī- \'suck\' |
| *gʰ, ǵʰ | *g | *gʰabʰ- > *gab- \'take\' *ǵʰelH-ro- > *galaro- \'sickness\' |
| *gʷʰ | *gʷ | *gʷʰn̥- > *gʷan- \'kill, wound\' |
| *s | *s | *seno- > *seno- \'old\' |
| *m | *m | *meh₂tēr > *mātīr \'mother\' |
| *n | *n | *nepōt- > *neɸūt- \'nephew\' |
| *l | *l | *ligʰ- > *lig- \'lick\' |
| *r | *r | *rēǵ-s > *rīgs \'king\' |
| *y | *y | *yuwn̥ko- > *yuwanko- \'young\' |
| *w | *w | *wlati- > *wlati- \'dominion\' |
In contrast to the parent language, Proto-Celtic does not use aspiration as a feature for distinguishing phonemes. So the Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ/ǵʰ merged with *b, *d, *g/ǵ. The voiced aspirate labiovelar *gʷʰ did not merge with *gʷ, though: plain *gʷ became *b in Proto-Celtic, while aspirated *gʷʰ became *gʷ. Thus, while PIE *gʷen- \'woman\' became Old Irish ben and Welsh benyw, PIE *gʷʰn̥- \'to kill, to wound\' is the source of Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu.
Proto-Indo-European *p was lost in Proto-Celtic, apparently going through the stages *ɸ (as in the table above) and *h (perhaps attested by the toponym Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being lost completely word-initially and between vowels. Adjacent to consonants, Proto-Celtic *ɸ underwent different changes: the clusters *ɸs and *ɸt became *xs and *xt respectively already in Proto-Celtic. PIE *sp- became Old Irish s and Brythonic f; while Schrijver (1995, 348) argues there was an intermediate stage *sɸ- (in which *ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone (1996, 44–45) finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to *ɸ did not happen when *s preceded. (Similarly, Grimm\'s law did not apply to *p, t, k after *s in Germanic.)
| Proto-Celtic | Old Irish | Welsh |
|---|---|---|
| *laɸs- > *laxs- \'shine\' | las-aid | llach-ar |
| *seɸtam > *sextam \'seven\' | secht | saith |
| *sɸeret- or *speret- \'heel\' | seir | ffêr |
In Gaulish and the Brythonic languages, a new *p sound has arisen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European *kʷ phoneme. Consequently one finds Gaulish petuar[ios], Welsh pedwar "four", compared to Old Irish *cethair and Latin quattuor. In so far as this new /p/ fills the space in the phoneme inventory which was lost by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as a chain shift.
The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful when we wish to group the Celtic languages according to the way they handle this one phoneme. However a simple division into P- and Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages. The large number of unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against a P-Celtic vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Ireland, Scotland, Cornwall and Wales. [1], in which case they would be irrelevant to Celtic language classification.
Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in some early borrowings from Welsh into Irish /k/ was used by sound substitution, as in Gaelic Cothrige, an early form of "Padraig". Gaelic póg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c.
The Proto-Celtic vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European by Antoine Meillet. Dissimilarities include the incidence of Celtic *ī for Proto-Indo-European *ē (e.g., Gaulish rix and Irish rí, "king"; compare Latin rēx) and *ā in place of *ō.
| PIE | Proto-Celtic | Example |
|---|---|---|
| *a, h₂e | *a | *h₂ebon- > *abon- \'river\' |
| *ā, *eh₂ | *ā | *bʰreh₂tēr > *brātīr \'brother\' |
| *e, h₁e | *e | *seno- > *seno- \'old\' |
| *"ə" (any laryngeal H between consonants) | *a | *ph₂tēr > *ɸatīr \'father\' |
| *ē, eh₁ | *ī | *wērh₁o- > *wīro- \'true\' |
| *o, Ho, h₃e | *o | *rotos > *rotos \'wheel\' |
| *ō, eh₃ | in final syllable, *ū | *nepōt- > *neɸūt- \'nephew\' |
| elsewhere, *ā | *deh₃no- > *dāno- \'gift\' | |
| *i | *i | *gʷitu- > *bitu- \'world\' |
| *ī, iH | *ī | *rīmeh₂ > *rīmā \'number\' |
| *ai, h₂ei, eh₂i | *ai | *kaikos > *kaikos \'blind\' *seh₂itlo- > *saitlo- \'age\' |
| *(h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i | *ē | *deiwos > *dēwos \'god\' |
| *oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i | *oi | *oinos > *oinos \'one\' |
| *u | before wa, o | *yuwn̥kos > *yowankos \'young\' |
| elsewhere, *u | *srutos > *srutos \'stream\' | |
| *ū, uH | *ū | *ruHneh₂ > *rūnā \'mystery\' |
| *au, h₂eu, eh₂u | *au | *tausos > *tausos \'silent\' |
| *(h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u; *ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u | *ou | *teuteh₂ > *toutā \'people\' *gʷōu- > *bou- |
| *l̥ | before stops, *li | *pl̥th₂nos > *ɸlitanos \'wide\' |
| before other consonants, *al | *kl̥yākos > *kalyākos \'rooster\' | |
| *r̥ | before stops, *ri | *bʰr̥ti- > *briti- \'act of bearing; mind\' |
| before other consonants, *ar | *mr̥wos > *marwos \'dead\' | |
| *m̥ | *am | *dm̥-na- > *damna- \'subdue\' |
| *n̥ | *an | *dn̥t- > *dant- \'tooth\' |
| *l̥H | before obstruents, *la | *wl̥Hti- > *wlati- \'lordship\' |
| before sonorants, *lā | *pl̥Hmeh₂ > *ɸlāmā \'hand\' | |
| *r̥H | before obstruents, *ra | *mr̥Htom > *mratom \'betrayal\' |
| before sonorants, *rā | *ǵr̥Hnom > **grānom \'grain\' | |
| *m̥H | *am/mā (presumably same distribution as above) | (none?) |
| *n̥H | *an or *nā (presumably same distribution as above) | probably *gn̥h₃to- > *gnato- \'knowing\' |
The vowel *"ə" is the so-called "schwa indogermanicum", now interpreted as a laryngeal between two consonants.
The regular consonantal sound changes from Proto-Celtic to the Welsh language and Cornish language may be summarised in the following table. Where the Welsh graphemes have a different value from the corresponding IPA symbols, the IPA equivalent is indicated between solidi. V represents a vowel; C represents a consonant.
| Proto-Celtic consonant | Proto-Brythonic consonant | Welsh consonant | Cornish consonant |
|---|---|---|---|
| *b- | *b | b | b |
| *-bb- | *-b- | b | b |
| *-VbV- | *v/b? | f /v/ | v |
| *d- | *d | d | d |
| *-dd- | *-d- | d | d |
| *-VdV- | *-d-? -ð- | dd /ð/ | d |
| *g- | *g- | g | g |
| *-gg- | *-g- | g | g |
| *-VgV- | *-VjV- | (lost) | (lost) |
| *h- | (lost) | (lost) | (lost) |
| *-h- | (lost) | (lost) | (lost) |
| *j- | *i- | i | i |
| *-j | *-ð | -dd (ð) | *-dh (ð) |
| *k- | *c- | c | k |
| *-kk- | *-cc- | ch /x/ | gh |
| *-VkV- | *-c-? -g-? | g | g |
| *kʷ- | *p- | p | p |
| *-kʷ- | *-b- | b | b |
| *l- | *l- | ll /ɬ/ | l |
| *-ll- | *-l- | l | l |
| *-VlV- | *-l- | l | l |
| *m- | *m- | m | m |
| *-mb- | *m? mb? | m | m |
| *-Cm- | *m | m | m |
| *-m- | *v? m? | f /v/ | v |
| *n- | *n- | n | n |
| *-n- | *-n- | n | n |
| *-nd- | *n / nn | n, nn | n, nn |
| *-nt- | *n / nh | nt, nh | n, nn |
| *r- | *r- | rh /r̥/ | r |
| *-r- | *-r- | r | r |
| *s- | *h-, s | h, s | h |
| *-s- | *-s- | s | s |
| *t | *t | t | t |
| *-t- | *-d-? -t-? | d | dh |
| *-tt-, *-ct- | *th? *tt? | th /θ/ | th |
| *w- | *v- | gw | gw |
| *sw- | *hw- | chw /xw/ | hw |
| *VwV | *w | dd | dh |
| final vowel | Vh | Vch | Vgh |
The morphology (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders, three numbers and five to eight cases. The genders were the normal masculine, feminine and neuter, the three numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention Pedersen, Holger (1913). Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen, 2. Band, Bedeutungslehre (Wortlehre), Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-26119-5: while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered rather unambiguous despite appeals to "archaic retentions" or "analogical levelling". These cases were nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative and instrumental.
Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on the stem. There are *o-stems, *ā-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems.
*wiros ‘man’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * wiros | * wire | * wirem | * wiri | * wirūi | * wirū | * wirū | * wirei |
| dual | * wirou | * wirou | * wirou | * wirūs | * wirobom | * wirobim | * wirobim | * wirou |
| plural | * wiroi | * wirūs | * wirūs | * wirom | * wirobo | * wirobi | * wirūs | * wirobi |
*dūnom ‘stronghold’ (neuter)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * dūnom | * dūnom | * dūnom | * dūni | * dūnūi | * dūnū | * dūnū | * dūnei |
| dual | * dūnou | * dūnou | * dūnou | * dūnūs | * dūnobom | * dūnobim | * dūnobim | * dūnou |
| plural | * dūnā | * dūnā | * dūnā | * dūnom | * dūnobo | * dūnobi | * dūnūs | * dūnobi |
E.g. * alisā ‘alder tree’ (feminine?)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * alisā | * alisa | * alisām | * alisās | * alisāi | * alisī | * alisī | * alisāi |
| dual | * alisai | * alisai | * alisai | * alisajous | * alisābom | * alisābim | * alisābim | * alisābim |
| plural | * alisās | * alisās | * alisās | * alisānom | * alisābo | * alisābi | * alisābi | * alisābi |
E.g. * kumbās ‘coomb’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * kumbās | * kumba | * kumbām | * kumbās | * kumbāi | * kumbī | * kumbī | * kumbāi |
| dual | * kumbai | * kumbai | * kumbai | * kumbajous | * kumbābom | * kumbābim | * kumbābim | * kumbābim |
| plural | * kumbās | * kumbās | * kumbās | * kumbānom | * kumbābo | * kumbābi | * kumbābi | * kumbābi |
E.g. * matus ‘he-bear’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * matus | * matu | * matum | * matous | * matou | * matū | * matū | * matū |
| dual | * matou | * matou | * matou | * matowou | * matoubom | * matoubim | * matoubim | * matoubim |
| plural | * matowes | * matowes | * matūs | * matujom | * matoubo | * matoubi | * matoubi | * matoubi |
E.g. * dānu ‘valley river’ (neuter?)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * dānu | * dānu | * dānu | * dānous | * dānou | * dānū | * dānū | * dānū |
| dual | * dānou | * dānou | * dānou | * dānowou | * dānoubom | * dānoubim | * dānoubim | * dānoubim |
| plural | * dānwā | * dānwā | * dānwā | * dānujom | * dānoubo | * dānoubi | * dānoubi | * dānoubi |
E.g. * albis ‘alp’ (masculine?)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * albis | * albis | * albim | * albeis | * albei | * albī | * albī | * albī |
| dual | * albī | * albī | * albī | * albjous | * albibom | * albibim | * albibim | * albibim |
| plural | * albejes | * albejes | * albīs | * albjom | * albibo | * albibi | * albibi | * albibi |
E.g. * rīganīs ‘queen’ (feminine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * rīganīs | * rīganīs | * rīganīm | * rīganos | * rīganei | * rīganī | * rīganī | * rīganī |
| dual | * rīganī | * rīganī | * rīganī | * rīganou | * rīganībom | * rīganībim | * rīganībim | * rīganībim |
| plural | * rīganes | * rīganes | * rīganīs | * rīganom | * rīganībo | * rīganībi | * rīganībi | * rīganībi |
E.g. * blawi ‘hair’ (neuter?)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * blawi | * blawi | * blawi | * blaweis | * blawei | * blawī | * blawī | * blawī |
| dual | * blawī | * blawī | * blawī | * blawjous | * blawibom | * blawibim | * blawibim | * blawibim |
| plural | * blawjā | * blawjā | * blawjā | * blawjom | * blawibo | * blawibi | * blawibi | * blawibi |
Before the *-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant was neutralised to *-x-: *rīg- "king" > *rīxs. Likewise, final *-d became *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.
E.g. rīxs ‘king’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * rīxs | * rīxs | * rīgem | * rīgos | * rīgei | * rīgī | * rīge | * rīgi |
| dual | * rīge | * rīge | * rīge | * rīgou | * rīgobom | * rīgobim | * rīgobim | * rīgobim |
| plural | * rīges | * rīges | * rīgas | * rīgom | * rīgobo | * rīgobi | * rīgobi | * rīgobi |
E.g. * druwits ‘druid’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * druwits | * druwits | * druwidem | * druwidos | * druwidei | * druwidī | * druwide | * druwidi |
| dual | * druwide | * druwide | * druwide | * druwidou | * druwidobom | * druwidobim | * druwidobim | * druwidobim |
| plural | * druwides | * druwides | * druwidas | * druwidom | * druwidobo | * druwidobi | * druwidobi | * druwidobi |
E.g. * karnuxs ‘carnyx’ (masculine?)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * karnuxs | * karnuxs | * karnukem | * karnukos | * karnukei | * karnukī | * karnuke | * karnuki |
| dual | * karnuke | * karnuke | * karnuke | * karnukou | * karnukobom | * karnukobim | * karnukobim | * karnukobim |
| plural | * karnukes | * karnukes | * karnukas | * karnukom | * karnukobo | * karnukobi | * karnukobi | * karnukobi |
E.g. * dants ‘tooth’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * dants | * dants | * dantem | * dantos | * dantei | * dantī | * dante | * danti |
| dual | * dante | * dante | * dante | * dantou | * dantobom | * dantobim | * dantobim | * dantobim |
| plural | * dantes | * dantes | * dantas | * dantom | * dantobo | * dantobi | * dantobi | * dantobi |
Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-, this becomes *-ū in the nominative singular: *abon-- "river" > *abū.
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * abū | * abū | * abonem | * abonos | * abonei | * abonī | * abone | * aboni |
| dual | * abone | * abone | * abone | * abonou | * abonobom | * abonobim | * abonobim | * abonobim |
| plural | * abones | * abones | * abonas | * abonom | * abonobo | * abonobi | * abonobi | * abonobi |
E.g. * kangsmã ‘step’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * kangsmã | * kangsmã | * kangsmanem | * kangsmanos | * kangsmanei | * kangsmanī | * kangsmane | * kangsmani |
| dual | * kangsmane | * kangsmane | * kangsmane | * kangsmanou | * kangsmanobom | * kangsmanobim | * kangsmanobim | * kangsmanobim |
| plural | * kangsmanes | * kangsmanes | * kangsmanas | * kangsmanom | * kangsmanobo | * kangsmanobi | * kangsmanobi | * kangsmanobi |
Generally, *s-stems end in *-es-, which becomes *-os in the nominative singular: *teges- ‘house’ > *tegos.
E.g. * tegos ‘house’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * tegos | * tegos | * tegesem | * tegesos | * tegesei | * tegesī | * tegese | * tegesi |
| dual | * tegese | * tegese | * tegese | * tegesou | * tegesobom | * tegesobim | * tegesobim | * tegesobim |
| plural | * tegeses | * tegeses | * tegesas | * tegesom | * tegesobo | * tegesobi | * tegesobi | * tegesobi |
E.g. *φatīr ‘father’ (masculine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * φatīr | * φatīr | * φater | * φatros | * φatrei | * φatrī | * φatre | * φatri |
| dual | * φatre | * φatre | * φatre | * φatrou | * φatrobom | * φatrobim | * φatrobim | * φatrobim |
| plural | * φatres | * φatres | * φatras | * φatrom | * φatrobo | * φatrobi | * φatrobi | * φatrobi |
E.g. * mātīr ‘mother’ (feminine)
| number | nominative | vocative | accusative | genitive | dative | ablative | instrumental | locative |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | * mātīr | * mātīr | * māter | * mātros | * mātrei | * mātrī | * mātre | * mātri |
| dual | * mātre | * mātre | * mātre | * mātrou | * mātrobom | * mātrobim | * mātrobim | * mātrobim |
| plural | * mātres | * mātres | * mātras | * mātrom | * mātrobo | * mātrobi | * mātrobi | * mātrobi |
The Insular Celtic verb shows a peculiar feature unknown in any other attested Indo-European language: verbs have different conjugational forms depending on whether they appear in absolute initial position in the sentence (Insular Celtic having Verb Subject Object or VSO word order) or whether they are preceded by a preverbal particle. The situation is most robustly attested in Old Irish, but it has remained to some extent in Scottish Gaelic and traces of it are present in Middle Welsh as well.
Forms that appear in sentence-initial position are called absolute, those that appear after a particle are called conjunct. The paradigm of the present active indicative of the Old Irish verb beirid "carry" is as follows; the conjunct forms are illustrated with the particle ní "not".
| Absolute | Conjunct | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | biru "I carry" | ní biur "I do not carry" |
| 2nd person singular | biri "you carry" | ní bir "you do not carry" |
| 3rd person singular | beirid "s/he carries" | ní beir "she/he does not carry" |
| 1st person plural | bermai "we carry" | ní beram "we do not carry" |
| 2nd person plural | beirthe "you carry" | ní beirid "you do not carry" |
| 3rd person plural | berait "they carry" | ní berat "they do not carry" |
In Scottish Gaelic this distinction is still found in certain verb-forms:
| Absolute | Conjunct |
|---|---|
| cuiridh "puts/will put" | cha chuir "doesn\'t put/will not put" |
| òlaidh "drinks/will drink" | chan òl "doesn\'t drink/will not drink" |
| ceannaichidh "buys/will buy" | cha cheannaich "doesn\'t buy/will not buy" |
In Middle Welsh, the distinction is seen most clearly in proverbs following the formula "X happens, Y does not happen" (Evans 1964: 119):
The older analysis of the distinction, as reported by Thurneysen (1946, 360 ff.), held that the absolute endings derive from Proto-Indo-European "primary endings" (used in present and future tenses) while the conjunct endings derive from the "secondary endings" (used in past tenses). Thus Old Irish absolute beirid "s/he carries" was thought to be from *bʰereti (compare Sanskrit bharati "s/he carries"), while conjunct beir was thought to be from *bʰeret (compare Sanskrit a-bharat "s/he was carrying").
Today, however, most Celticists agree that Cowgill (1975), following an idea present already in Pedersen (1913, 340 ff.), found the correct solution to the origin of the absolute/conjunct distinction: an enclitic particle, reconstructed as *es after consonants and *s after vowels, came in second position in the sentence. If the first word in the sentence was another particle, *(e)s came after that and thus before the verb, but if the verb was the first word in the sentence, *(e)s was cliticized to it. Under this theory, then, Old Irish absolute beirid comes from Proto-Celtic *bereti-s, while conjunct ní beir comes from *nī-s bereti.
The identity of the *(e)s particle remains uncertain. Cowgill suggests it might be a semantically degraded form of *esti "is", while Schrijver (1994) has argued it is derived from the particle *eti "and then", which is attested in Gaulish.
Continental Celtic languages cannot be shown to have any absolute/conjunct distinction. However, they seem to show only SVO and SOV word orders, as in other Indo-European languages. The absolute/conjunct distinction may thus be an artifact of the VSO word order that arose in Insular Celtic.
The date when Proto-Celtic became a separate language is controversial. In the past an association with particular archaeological cultures had been assumed, then the method of glottochronology was used. Both are not satisfactory for many reasons. In the last decade or so a number of groups have addressed this question using modern computational methods, with differing results. Gray and Atkinson estimated a date of 6100 BP while Forster and Toth suggest a date of 8100 BP. Both these dates are subject to considerable estimating uncertainty, perhaps +/-1500 years. In the Paleolithic Continuity Theory Celtic is proposed to have emerged from the Iberian refuge after the Last Glacial Maximum, but this theory is not generally accepted.
Proto-Celtic may have been spoken to as late as 800 BCE, see Celtic languages.
A reference for Proto-Celtic vocabulary is provided by the University of Wales at the following sites:
Alternatively, the Leiden University provides a Proto-Celtic dictionary:
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from Wikipedia
